
A guide to support practical implementation of paludiculture systems
Uses of paludiculture crops
Paludiculture plants have developed specific characteristics to adapt to the moist and wet conditions in wet peat soils. For example, these include aeration tissue (aerenchyma) in the leaves and stems of the Typha, which enables the plant to transport air into the plant parts under water, or storage of silicates in various paludiculture plants, which have an anti-fungal and flame-resistant effect. Sphagnum acts like a sponge and can store many times its own weight in water. These special properties of wetland plants can be used in products from paludiculture crops and offer advantages over typical products.
Products made from renewable raw materials sourced from paludiculture may also be recognised by the supply chain as a result of their low (perhaps even negative) C footprints as a result of:
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reduction in greenhouse gas emissions as a result of the increase in water levels in the production area,
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storage of carbon within the (durable) product, and
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replacement of fossil raw materials.
Paludiculture crop / Use | Reeds | Typha | Reed canary grass | Alder and other trees | Wet meadows | Sphagnum |
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As part of livestock systems | + | + | ++ | ++ | ||
Substrates for horticulture | + | + | + | ++ | ||
Bioenergy | ||||||
Biogas wet fermentation | + | + | + | ++ | ||
Biogas dry fermentation | + | ++ | ||||
Combustion | + | ++ | + | ++ | ||
Bio-based products | ||||||
Construction and insulating materials | ++ | + | + | + | + | |
Paper and moulded products | + | + | + | + | ||
Biorefinery | + | + | + | + |
Once sites that have potential for paludiculture are identified, then it is important to consider which paludiculture crops are most appropriate. Given the early market development of paludiculture, it is important to consider processing and associated marketing opportunities alongside identification of suitable sites and selection of the most appropriate cropping systems. This requires individual analysis of the (regional) sales opportunities for the biomass produced. It may also be necessary to invest in development of new processing, manufacture and marketing structures. These may be completely new systems or focus on the conversion of existing systems, processes and structures in order to integrate paludiculture biomass. The following questions should be addressed:
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Are there existing processing capacities that can or would utilise the raw material? (in your own company? In the region?) Or are there existing processing structures that could convert to use biomass from paludiculture crops?
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What are the requirements for the raw material and can these be met (quality / quantity / price)?
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Where and how can raw materials be stored and, if necessary, dried?
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In what form should the raw material be provided - as bales, bundles, chaff, ensiled?
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Do raw materials need to be processed, preconditioned, if so, in what form (e.g. as pellets)?
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Can processing be carried out on the farm?
The suitability of paludiculture crop products for different uses can be tested. Some processing companies have their own laboratories or carry out preliminary tests with small sample quantities. In the short- to medium-term, there will be a need for a range of intermediaries to support increased market awareness and development of processing methods. Cooperation between farms would appear to make sense, to increase amount of land for raw material production and help overcome the current "chicken-and-egg problem" - that supply and demand must be created simultaneously for raw materials and products derived from paludiculture. Collaboration along the value chain may include the farm as a raw material producer, the processing company and / or the marketing company for the end product. These collaborations enable transdisciplinary development of knowledge and experience, ranging from the influence of land management to the properties of the end product through effective feedback between partners.
At present, revenues for raw materials from paludiculture are often still lower than the revenues farmers can earn with conventional agricultural products. Paludiculture systems and biomass processing can be supported through further financing e.g. via support for agricultural / land use change, biodiversity or greenhouse gas mitigation (C financing) as well as investment support - both for the establishment of paludiculture, acquisition of adapted cultivation technology and / or facilities for processing the raw material.
This section provides an overview of the possible use pathways for raw materials and products from paludiculture. There are currently few established products made from paludiculture raw materials on the market. Both functioning, economically viable field together with post-field production systems need to be developed in parallel to enable the large-scale establishment of paludiculture.
As part of livestock systems
Grazing:
Grasslands on drained peatlands have often been reseeded with high quality fodder grasses (and sometimes mixed / diverse swards). However, because of the greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the decomposition of the drained peat, the carbon footprint of the livestock products is high, with the land-use change emissions forming a significant proportion of the footprint together with ruminant emissions, and those associated with processing. For example, milk produced solely from dairy cows on drained peatland has a carbon footprint approx. 5 times larger than milk from cows solely on mineral soils.
Currently there has been little work on herbage variety selection and breeding for rewetted peatland. Hence the fodder values of wetland plants are poor and insufficient to support dairy production. However, grazing with robust cattle breeds and water buffalo (at 0.8 - 1.5 LU per ha), which are adapted to damp and wet conditions, as well as thriving on forage rich in crude fibre, offers an opportunity to continue or adapt existing forms of management. In some cases, pre-existing farm infrastructure and equipment can continue to be used (overwinter housing, handling facilities, etc.). However, available grazing periods may be short, highly dependent on the weather and can fail completely in some years. There is also a higher risk of infestation with parasites and hoof diseases. In the light of the challenges for land-based animal husbandry, even in dryland systems, grazing in paludiculture systems is likely to be a niche economic activity and is also lilkey to be limited to transition areas where drier soils occur within the rewetted peatland areas.
Landscape restoration schemes may include requirements for grazing with the aim of maintaining the landscape, preventing shrub / tree invasion and keeping it open. Robust cattle breeds with low weights are suitable for grazing wet grassland to produce meat. These include UK cattle breeds such as Dexter, Galloway, Highland and even Aberdeen Angus, as well as European breeds such as Fjäll, Heck, Hinterwald and Murnau-Werdenfels cattle. Care should be taken to ensure that the wet areas are fenced off at the beginning of the growing season, as the forage value decreases rapidly over the course of the year. In contrast, grazing with sheep is only possible in areas bordering on paludiculture where water levels in summer average 20 - 45 cm below ground level. However, additional payments for conservation grazing are usually required to enable meat production systems on rewetted peatland to compete with other beef /lamb systems.
Water buffalo can also be used for meat and milk production on wet land; however, the labour costs associated with this system are currently very high. Water buffaloes are ready for slaughter at around 20 - 30 months and the slaughter yield is 55 % of the live weight. It is also important to note that water buffalo have a thicker skull than cattle and slaughterhouses must be equipped accordingly. Rearing and marketing of water buffalo for meat is currently primarily linked to landscape conservation and is a niche use, but could provide an option for the use of wet meadows.
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Peatland type:
Care is needed in taking information from different locations as different countries classify their peatlands differently, but peatlands are referred commonly by names such as bogs, fens, and mires. The term mire is usually used when the system is actively forming peat.
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Groundwater-fed (geogenous) peatlands, i.e. fens, are nutrient-rich (minerotrophic). Fens commonly have neutral pH all year, and are characterised by abundance of base cations, e.g. Calcium and Magnesium. In the lowlands if the peat surface is able to rise above the groundwater level (usually as a result of moss colonisation) then the peat receives water from precipitation only (ombrogenous), and an acid and nutrient-poor peatland will form over time (lowland raised bog). Lowland raised bogs represent the successional zenith where rainfall inputs are high enough to support sphagnum moss growth.
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Knowledge of the hydrological factors that determined peatland formation in the past, together with the peatland type can be used to assess water and nutrient availability (Table 1). This can also be used as information to help assess wettability as it also gives information about the water supply before drainage. Peatlands may form in small pockets, such as kettle holes in glacial outwash plains, or occupy large areas in the freshwater fringe of estuaries.

Picture 10: Water buffalo in the rewetted coastal flooding marsh at Karrendorfer Wiesen, near Greifswald. Landscape conservationists are successfully pushing back the reeds. Photo: S. Abel.
In addition to water buffaloes, there are other niche production systems that might be practicable on rewetted grasslands. For example, year-round farming of red deer or horses (Exmoor and Icelandic ponies, Konik) is possible on rewetted fenland areas where there are also some dry/mineral areas available as retreats. Reeds, sedges, overgrown grass (horses) and shrubs (deer) are consumed as forage. Some supplementary feeding, e.g. with hay, will be necessary overwinter. Grazing with geese can be also be carried out. The main fattening period lasts 28 - 32 weeks. Selected breeds can make good use of both green and fibrous herbage feeds with a low nutrient content, but also need access to sufficient sweet grasses. These systems are usually profitable from around 1,000 birds upwards, which requires at least 20 ha of land.
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Fodder:
Silage, hay and other cut forages from wet meadows are used in suckler cow husbandry, for heifer fattening and as horse feed. The stem-rich hay is also popular in small animal husbandry, but the market size is limited. Fodder quality is determined by the grassland species composition as well as the time of harvest and this has a impact on use / market suitability. Late-harvested reed canary grass hay is well suited as horse feed: it has a fructan content of >5 % and can be fed in larger quantities daily without exceeding the daily requirement of digestible protein. Work is underway on new seed mixtures with moisture-tolerant species to improve feed quality for suckler cows. However the main constraint is access for harvesting (see Wet meadows and pastures – harvest).
Silage and forage trials of Typha in the Netherlands(2017/2018) have shown that while dry dairy cattle will eat Typha silage, they prefer grass silage and the feed value of Typha is lower than that of grass. Milk yields were reduced by 8 - 10%, though these can be compensated by increasing feed concentrates. Typha is also more difficult to ensile than grass. Fresh young Typha plants were more readily consumed. Typha has a high selenium content, so additional administration of selenium may be reduced.
Proteins can be extracted from "green" biomass harvested in summer using a “green” biorefinery process. The concentrated pressed juice can be fed to monogastric animals, e.g. chickens and pigs, thus reducing the import of proteins for meat production. The protein press juice is a by-product of bio-refining, and the extracted plant substances lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose can also be used to process platform chemicals, bioenergy, proteins for food and fibre products from the extracted fibre components (see Bio-based products – bio-refinery).
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Bedding:
Silage, hay and other cut forages from wet meadows are used in suckler cow husbandry, for heifer fattening and as horse feed. The stem-rich hay is also popular in small animal husbandry, but the market size is limited. Fodder quality is determined by the grassland species composition as well as the time of harvest and this has a impact on use / market suitability. Late-harvested reed canary grass hay is well suited as horse feed: it has a fructan content of >5 % and can be fed in larger quantities daily without exceeding the daily requirement of digestible protein. Work is underway on new seed mixtures with moisture-tolerant species to improve feed quality for suckler cows. However the main constraint is access for harvesting (see Wet meadows and pastures – harvest).
Substrates for horticulture
Extracted peat has traditionally been used in growing media for commercial horticulture, to support vegetable transplants and within potting soils for ornamentals and hobby horticulture. A range of peat substitutes have been evaluated including composts, wood chippings and fibres, bark and coconut fibres.
Sphagnum biomass has similar properties to slightly decomposed peat. The suitability of sphagnum biomass as a horticultural substrate has been proven repeatedly, whereby a volume proportion of 50 % in the growing medium can be replaced by sphagnum biomass without loss of quality. More recent work has taken this further even up to 100 %. Bulk densities of sphagnum biomass depend on the water content as well as the particle size and range between 12 - 48 g DM per litre (31 - 283 g FM per litre). Sphagnum is already used solely or in mixtures for speciality crops such as orchids or for carnivorous plants. The current raw material price for peat moss biomass as a substrate feedstock for speciality crops such as orchids is around EUR 165 per m³. However, the widespread use of sphagnum biomass as a substrate starting material in horticulture has not yet been established commercially. Lack of raw materials is crucial because sphagnum paludiculture is not yet in place on a large scale. In addition, there are not currently any agreed quality assurance criteria for sphagnum biomass, as there are for all established substrate constituents.


Picture 12: Poinsettia in substrate consisting of 80 % peat moss biomass. Photo: A. Prager.
Picture 11: Fresh peat moss biomass.
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Other biomass materials harvested from paludiculture crops such as biomass harvested from rewetted fens, such as Typha, reed and reed canary grass, have also been evaluated as a possible peat or compost substitute - and initial results are promising. Biomass from different cutting times (summer, autumn, winter) and different processing methods (chopping, pulping, composting, carbonisation) are likely to give materials with a range of quality attributes. The properties of defibred above-ground paludiculture stem-biomass crops harvested in winter appear to be comparable to those of wood fibres. Good features of these raw materials sourced from paludiculture include a low weight by volume as well as a high air capacity. One of the challenges is to reduce nitrogen immobilisation by the materials, which can be reduced by a composting phase. In addition the potential of Typha crops to absorb nutrients, heavy metals and herbicides during its growth phase must also be considered. Hence Typha from sites with poor input water quality may not meet agreed quality assurance criteria for substate materials. Questions that need to be addressed where these types of materials are to be used as a substrate starting material include availability and associated storage of the raw material, contamination with weed seeds and options for processing.
Increased requirements, coupled to willingness to pay, for peat-free or peat-reduced composts in horticulture will increase market demand and should make it possible to increase revenue from the use of paludiculture crops as substrates for horticulture in the future.
Bioenergy
Biomass from paludiculture crops can be used as a raw material for direct thermal utilisation for (electricity and) heat production. Greater added value may possibly be achieved by refining the biomass into liquid and gaseous biofuels.
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Combustion:
Direct combustion of biomass materials for heat, hot water and electricity generation has been widely established for straw and other bio-fuel crops such as Miscanthus. These technologies can be adapted for stem-biomass paludiculture crops .
Combustion of dry biomass (hay) from wet meadows is economically viable under locally favourable conditions. For example, Agrotherm have generated heat and hot water by burning hay at their Malchin/M-V site since 2014. Around 3,500 MWh of heat are generated here annually, with the fuel harvested from around 300 hectares of wet meadows in late summer. Usually, the proportion of ash is less than 10 % of the fuel and this can be reused as fertiliser or must be disposed of (for a fee). Availability of a sufficiently large (ideally year-round) heat sink, e.g. existing (municipal) heating networks, industrial plants and the combination with biomass drying in summer, is key to ensuring that the plant is utilised as much as possible throughout the year. One challenge lies in the production of dry, storable fuel on wet peatland, especially in years with very high summer water levels, and when the timeframes for haymaking are too short. Alternatively, a second fuel source and supply to the boiler considered, such as wood chippings or pellets. Heat generation costs are largely comprised of the investment and operating costs; if the fuel is compacted then costs for pelletisation should also be included. Fuel costs are largely determined by harvesting costs.
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Picture 13 and 14: Agrotherm GmbH heating plant in Malchin, where biomass from a rewetted fenland is burnt. Photos: T. Dahms.
Photovoltaics on rewetted moors:
In principle, biomass from paludiculture crops such as Typha, reeds, reed canary grass and sedges can deliver similar biogas yields to grass in anaerobic digestion. Early cuts of the crops are essential. Previous investigations in batch fermentation tests showed that methane yields for biomass from paludiculture were in the average range, with some significant differences between different plant species. The methane yields were 102 - 240 LN per kgoTM or biogas yields between 311 - 581 LN per kgoTM with average methane contents of 54 - 60 % in the biogas Biogas yield decreases with increasing plant age as the proportion of biomass that is difficult or impossible to ferment (e.g. lignin) increases. In conventionally operated biogas plants (based on maize silage), a paludiculture biomass share of up to 20 % appears feasible. If necessary, degradability of the material can be increased by preparatory processing, e.g. using a hammer mill. Existing plants that already use grass as a substrate could switch to reed canary grass. By-products from other processes, such as pressed juice from biorefinery processes, can be used to improve the methane yield.
In solid matter fermentation (dry fermentation), lignified biomass (e.g. hay) can be used for fermentation. However, solid matter fermentation is not widespread and has logistical capacity limits; a connected heat sink is required and regional recycling structures are needed for the digestate.
Given the costs of harvesting biomass in wet peat soils is cost-intensive, hence increasing fuel costs compared with maize from dryland sites, biogas production from paludiculture biomass only appears to be ecologically and economically feasible as part of a cascade utilisation process. There may be some potential to supply from existing plants that need to switch from maize silage to other input materials.
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Biogas by anaerobic digestion (and potential cascades):
​Requirements to expand renewable energy generation may also provide an opportunity to install ground-mounted photovoltaic (PV) systems and agri-PV systems on rewetted peatland sites. It is important that installation of a system does not prevent or impair rewetting; ideally rewetting and PV system installation would take place at the same time. The foundation or anchoring of the support structure in the ground represents a challenge where peat thicknesses is over 1 m. Alignment and spacing of the modules must be put together in such a way that sufficient light reaches the ground for the plants to grow, as plant ground cover is necessary to protect the peat. Information on the effects of PV systems on typical peatland biodiversity, peat conservation and the long-term technical requirements for PV systems as well as on dismantling issues are not yet available. Without a harvested crop, it is unlikely that these systems would be recognised as paludiculture.
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Picture 15: Solarpark Lottorf ground-mounted PV system from Wattmanufactur in partially rewetted fenland in Schleswig-Holstein. Photo: Bas Spanjers.
Carbonisation (pyrolysis or hydrothermal carbonisation):
Carbonisation of biomass can be used to produce materials that can be used in many different ways. Carbonisation systems of various sizes are already available on the market. During pyrolysis, dry biomass (at least 65 % dry matter) - such as hay or wood - is carbonised in the absence of oxygen and at very high temperatures. In hydrothermal carbonisation (HTC), moist biomass (e.g. digestate from a biogas plant) is converted into a carbon-containing solid using heat and pressure. Depending on process control, carbon can be produced with different properties, e.g. as a soil conditioner, as a feed additive to improve animal health and reduce odours in stables, as activated carbon to act as a filter for municipal wastewater, as a building material additive (e.g. in concrete) or as an electrode material in energy storage systems. The carbon can also be bound for the long term, depending on how the biochar/ charcoal materials are used. Alongside using the carbon produced, the process heat from pyrolysis can be fed to a heat sink or used to generate electricity via a combined heat and power plant.
The suitability of paludiculture biomass for carbonisation has not yet been investigated specifically. However, the low density of the bulk material density imposes logistical limits on carbonisation and would restrict large-scale utilisation. Application of similar processes is currently focussed on residual materials ("waste") as source material, such as agricultural residues, digestates, sewage sludge, food waste, etc. The opportunities for use of paludiculture biomass as a source material for carbonisation are therefore estimated to be low - at least at present.
Bio-based products
Construction:
Stem-biomass paludiculture plants have a range of properties that make them of interest as possible raw materials within the construction, insulation and materials sectors. For example, some paludiculture plants are naturally antifungal and have developed stable, strong structures to stand up to several metres high, as well as withstanding the impact of waves on bodies of water, as well as special tissues in the leaves and stems to channel air into the roots (aerenchyma).
Building and insulating materials made from reed have been used traditionally for thousands of years. The most common use is thatching (reed). There is an established market for reed products in Europe, for which over 80 % of the raw material currently has to be imported from outside Europe, as there is not enough harvested or cultivated area available. To date, reed cutting for roof reed has largely taken place within natural and semi-natural managed reedbeds, but cultivation of reeds has been and is being tested in various trials, and there is a need for more research on reed quality and yield to allow more effective management in response to site conditions.

Picture 16: A new house with reed used to create a thatched roof.
Photo: F. Tanneberger
Reed stems can also be bound with wire used to make insulation panels. The market for garden and landscaping products has been expanding for example to create privacy screens and fences. Reed stems can also be fixed tightly to a base board to provide sound absorption panels as part of acoustic management systems.

Picture 17: Acoustic adsorption panels made of reed stems from HISS-Reet - https://www.hiss-reet.de. Photo: A. Nordt.
Typha has been identified as a very promising raw material for construction in particular for insultation boards and cavity insulation. Using more complex processing methods, the more heterogeneous biomass from harvesting wet meadow grasses can also be processed into building and insulation materials. Promising prototype building and insulating materials made from shredded Typha stem and leaf materials are currently only available as prototypes and as part of small-scale production systems (e.g. work carried out by the Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics IBP). However, as Typha cultivation has so far only taken place on a few trial plots, sufficient amounts of raw materials are not yet available for development of downstream processing capacities. It is important to note that a key part of market development in these areas will be the achievement of associated certification and authorisation of paludiculture derived products. These steps are necessary to make the products directly accessible to architects.​

Picture 18: Grass fibre insulation mats produced by Gramiterm. Photo: A. Nordt.

Picture 19: Grass fibre insulation mats produced by Gramiterm. Photo: A. Nordt.

Picture 20: Fibre composite panel made from wet meadow biomass. Manufactured by ZELFO Technology. Foto: S. Manzel

Picture 21: Test with cavity insulation made from shredded Typha. Photo: W. Wichtmann.
Raw material quality needs to be adapted to the respective product requirements through appropriate choice of establishment, crop management and harvest timing. Depending on the application, harvested biomass is then processed to a greater or lesser degree, for example, shredded, pressed, defibred and thus modified mechanically, chemically or by adding heat and pressure in order to achieve the desired product requirements. Paludiculture biomass could be integrated into existing processing systems, particularly those developed for processing biomass crops. Many secondary raw materials (i.e. residues) can be fed into other production systems and cascades e.g. after fibre processing. As a result, possible products include: insulation mats, cavity insulation materials, cellulose foam boards, fibreboard panels for furniture or interior fittings as well as other board materials, e.g. for the automotive industry, from interior panelling to mat and upholstery materials. Characteristics of individual paludiculture insulation materials in terms of thermal conductivity and bulk density are comparable with other insulation materials made from renewable raw materials.
The market share of insulation materials made from renewable raw materials is increasing. Studies in Germany, based on annual insulation material requirements of 38.5 million m3, indicate that a market share of 10% insulation materials from paludiculture would have a theoretical area requirement of 640,000 ha. This illustrates the high potential within this market for paludiculture-derived products. If the low or even negative carbon footprint of paludiculture insulation materials were also able to be credited to the product, this could lead to a further market advantage for bio-based materials compared with fossil fuel based alternatives and could increase the demand for paludiculture raw materials. For example, if the carbon footprint of building and insulation materials were used as a selection criterion for materials to be used in (public) construction projects this would have a positive signalling effect both for raw material producers, i.e. farmers, and for the development of processing capacities.
capacities. It is important to note that a key part of market development in these areas will be the achievement of associated certification and authorisation of paludiculture derived products. These steps are necessary to make the products directly accessible to architects.
Paper and moulded products:
Fibres from paludiculture biomass offer potential for use in paper and in the production of moulded pulp. Pulp is the basis for the production of paper, cardboard and paperboard, and pulp is made from cellulose from plants. Over 90 % of the world's pulp is obtained from wood. However, cellulose can also be obtained from the stems of a range of crops including grass, reeds and other paludiculture crops. Reed is suitable for the paper industry as it has a high cellulose content (40 - 50 %) and long fibres. The fibres of reed canary grass are particularly suitable for the production of fine papers: with short, narrow fibres and a high fibre content. Preliminary tests using wet meadow grasses have also been promising. The use of grass as a raw material as part of paper production systems, including recycled paper, reduces water and energy requirements by over 90 % in each case, and no chemicals need to be used, in contrast to pulp production from wood.
Pulp made from fresh and recycled fibres is used for both paper and moulded pulp products. Some producers already use utilise fibrous digestates from biogas production, straw and agricultural residues to create disposable products that can be recycled and / or composted. Egg cartons and similar shock-absorbing (food) transport packaging are a typically made of moulded pulp. Current developments are focusing on integration of new properties into moulded pulp products, e.g. to make them fire-retardant and more thermally stable.

Picture 22: Disposable crockery made from reeds and cattail. Prototypes from Biolutions. Photo: S. Abel.
The process is common to most fibrous materials. Dry biomass is usually pelletised after shredding so that the pellets can be incorporated into existing production processes. Pellets must fulfil the raw material requirements including:
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the ability to dissolve within 20 minutes in the pulper,
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specific fibre lengths of the target fraction (e.g. 0.8 - 1.2 mm for paper)
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the lowest possible proportion of coarse particles and particulates (max. 20 %)
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low protein and sugar content.
The properties of the biomass raw material can be influenced and the effects can therefore be mitigated by adapting crop management and harvest timing.
The cross-compatibility of the processing approaches mean that it would be possible to scale up the use of paludiculture-derived fibres by initially using only a small proportion in the end product (e.g. 10 - 20 %), which could be increased in future as experience is gained and potential technical adjustments are made. Smaller paper machines produce around 40,000 tonnes of paper, while larger machines produce up to 400,000 tonnes of paper per year. With a substitution share of 30 % of classic wood pulp with the new paludiculture fibre pulp, this results in a demand of 12,000 or 120,000 tonnes per year for each plant, which requires approx. 5,000 tonnes of hay. It is estimated that approximately 30 % of paludiculture biomass could be used as virgin fibre in the moulded pulp process. Tonnages of over 1,000 tonnes per year are required in order to run plants cost-effectively. Potential for provision of raw materials for paper and pulp products from paludiculture is therefore significant.
Biorefinery:
In biorefinery processing, biomass components are processed into various intermediate and end products. Application of these concepts in practice is at an early stage; conceptual development includes "on-farm biorefineries", i.e. decentralised processing of raw materials where they are harvested using a green chemistry approach in aqueous media.
Where biomass is harvested green, the first step needed is protein removal. The biomass is pressed, collected and these concentrated juices can be fed to monogastric animals, e.g. chickens and pigs, thus reducing the import of proteins for meat production. However, the main focus of the biorefinery is the extraction of cellulose components, hemicellulose and xyloses as well as lignin via a dissolution and component separation in aqueous media i.e. the lignocellulose biorefinery. Once the carbohydrates have been dissolved, the xyloses are refined into furfural in a hydrothermal process (under increased pressure and temperature). Furfural is used as a basic chemical for e.g. synthetic resins in chemistry, but also for pharmaceuticals and natural substances. Approx. 10 kg of furfural can be produced from 100 kg of hay. Phenol mixtures can be processed from the lignin, which are used in resins and varnishes, for example. A similar biorefinery approach can be used to react the cellulose and its hydrolysis products in an aqueous medium under hydrothermal conditions to form HMF, the bio-based chemical 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. can be produced from HMF. HMF can be further processed into polyethylene furanoate (PEF), a bio-based high-performance polymer with excellent physical and chemical properties suitable for bio-based plastic packaging. Furfural and HMF are versatile renewable chemical building blocks and have been identified in the top 10 bio-based platform chemicals of the future.
Special applications:
Sphagnum biomass has a wide range of other applications, including as a dressing material, hygiene products (nappies, sanitary towels), as ornamentation and in garden design, as insulation material in the construction sector, transport and packaging material, as an absorber in the event of chemical accidents or as a water filter. The following table lists additional use pathways for (special) paludiculture crops for which, for example, a relatively small area or raw material volume is already sufficient to serve an (existing) market. It does not claim to be exhaustive.
Products | Paludiculture crop | Harvest time | Application potential |
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Medical products (phytopharmaceuticals) e.g. cough syrup and lozenges for treatment of respiratory diseases | Sundew | At flowering time (July/August), manual harvesting | Products established, but with low potential for acceptance |
Food for beneficial organisms in ecological cultivation | Typha pollen | Summer | Product established, co-product from Typha |
Typha pollen is suitable as it is not collected by bees and retains its nutritional value for at least two weeks. | |||
Clothing – insulating filler (down replacement) | Typha seed fluff | Autumn | Product at pilot stage, potential co-product from Typha |
Silicon as anode material in lithium-ion batteries | Reeds (leaves) | Summer/autumn | Research studies have shown suitability but no established use pathway to date |
Phytomining: Germanium and other rare earths | Reed canary grass | Summer/autumn | Relevant in the future, currently not economically viable |

Picture 23: Sundew on peat mosses on the peat moss paludiculture area at Hankhauser Moor, near Bremen. Photo: S. Abel
This information is taken from a translation of the Leitfaden Fur Die Umsetzung Von Paludikultur, originally produced in German in 2022.
Nordt, A., Abel, S., Hirschelmann, S., Lechtape, C. & Neubert, J. (2022) Leitfaden für die Umsetzung von Paludikultur. Greifswald Moor Centrum-Schriftenreihe 05/2022 (Selbstverlag, ISSN 2627–910X), 144 S.
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With thanks to the Greifswald Moor Centrum and to funding from the Paludiculture Engagement Fund (within the Nature for Climate Fund).

Implementation of paludiculture is currently still very much in the pilot stage. Many farmers are aware of the significant climate impact of their peatlands, but they lack specific practical knowledge for conversion alongside specific economic prospects and commercial exploitation partners. Some pioneering farms are already implementing cultivation at high water levels and paludiculture crops are being further developed and tested in research projects. However, large-scale realisation of paludiculture systems in practice is still in its infancy.
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We therefore expect this guide to grow and develop as farmers and researchers provide new information to update it. If you spot errors or want to add material, please contact us at: paludiculture@niab.com.